1.0 DEFINITION OF AN OUTRIGGER CANOE
An outrigger canoe is defined by having the inclusion of a rig known as an outrigger which acts as a counterpoise or balance, rigged out from the side of the canoe. A number of spars (iako), usually 2 but up to as many as 10 depending on the canoe’s origin and purpose, are lashed across and to the canoe gunwales, extending outwards for a given distance and truncating with the attachment of a flotation device (ama).
In the case of the single outrigger canoe, only one outrigger attachment is used, extended usually out on the left or port side, whereas a double outrigger canoe has outriggers extending outwards on both sides. Many variations of this system exist according to the waters the canoes were used in, their function, the size of the primary hull and the materials available to the builders and designers.
2.0 ORIGINS OF THE OUTRIGGER CANOE No actual evidence of how the development of the outrigger concept exists. What we know seems based on the pretext that the most logical and therefore less intellectually challenging solutions manifested first, followed later by the more advanced concepts.
The log formed the basis of the earliest water craft. With the development of tools, notably the adze (a timber shafted tool with axe like head fashioned from clam shell or sharpened rock) logs were subsequently dug-out. Some cultures, such as the American Northwest Indians, combined this with the use of fire to hollow the log out.
Earliest evidence of this maritime development can be traced back to Papua New Guinea, however within Africa this practice was also widely practiced amongst ocean and river peoples. Hollowed out, the log thus became a canoe which provided protection from the elements and provision for storage. However it had limited stability in rough and choppy waters and a series of experiments were initiated to improve this.
It is assumed that the lashing of two canoes together, using separate timber crossbeams would have been the initial method adopted to create a raft like construction or double hulled canoe, which went on to be pioneered and reach a zenith in the hands of the Polynesians and their voyaging canoes.
The conception of an outrigger as a means of increasing stability is an advanced maritime architectural concept and it is supposed that the creation of the double outrigger canoe (an outrigger attachment rigged out on both sides of a single canoe) was the next stage in this development.
Because of its advanced concept, the last of the methodologies used it is concluded, was the development of the single outrigger, the popular paddle craft used extensively for outrigger canoe racing.
2.2 Who were the designers of the outrigger canoe?
The outrigger canoe is present in parts of the Indian Ocean including, East Africa, Comoro Islands the Maldives and parts of India which are substantially older cultures than that of Oceania and so some would speculate that the outrigger canoe may have its origins in this region.
However many believe that the outrigger canoe in whatever form it first appeared, originated in the region of Indonesia, spreading outwards with the migration of these people across into Samoa, (the birthplace of Polynesian culture) and also to Micronesia and Melanesia.
This conclusion seems drawn on the basis that it is from within these cultures that the outrigger canoe was used in such huge numbers and from where we have the greatest variance of design concepts. All seafaring cultures of Oceania can be described as being a canoe culture, intrinsically linked by similarity of language and the construction and reliance on the outrigger canoe in its many and varied forms, be they paddled or sailed.
2.3 When did the inclusion of outriggers take place?
Putting a date to the development of the outrigger framework is extremely difficult. The use of natural materials such as timber and other plant material, has left little or no archaeological evidence having long since perished. In addition to this the cultures involved had no written language. Oral history and legend provides one of the best means of gauging a time and to some extent cave drawings, or Petroglyphs which exist in some island regions and in particular, Hawai’i.
At the risk of being grossly inaccurate, it appears that the concept is at the very least 3000 years old, this being approximately the time at which the early Polynesians departed Samoa in voyaging canoes to colonize the Pacific Islands, known today as the Polynesian triangle.
2.4 Why aren’t two outriggers better than one?
Limitations with the double outrigger existed in that in deep rough water the primary hull became suspended between two large swells with the outer floats (ama) in contact with the swell peaks at either side. Thus the single outrigger overcame this problem ensuring that the primary hull always remained in contact with the water. The single outrigger canoe was therefore better able to cope with larger wave and swell action, given the natural materials available to the designers.
2.5 Why doesn’t the canoe capsize with only one outrigger?
The secret is in the flexibility of the outrigger assembly, inherent within the spars (iako) and the lashing material attached to the primary hull. Constructed of timber the spars (iako) have a natural degree of inherent flex, so as the outer float (ama) travels up and down over swell and chop. The movement is absorbed along the length of the spars (iako) back to the canoe, much like shock absorbers on a car.
As a secondary measure the lashing used to attach the spar (iako) to canoe, should also have a degree of flex and stretch, so that in the event of the spar (iako) reaching its maximum flex the lashing material can then give to some degree to further absorb the movement. Within this lies some important laws of physics which must be acknowledged as truly advanced thinking on the part of its designers.
3.0 PARTS OF AN OUTRIGGER CANOE
The naming of the parts which make up the outrigger framework can naturally be given English equivalents. However, out of respect it is common practice to use the original names as given to them by, in particular, the Hawaiians, as it is principally the Hawaiian outrigger canoe that is used internationally for outrigger canoe racing.
The exception to this exists amongst islands and cultures of Oceania, be they Micronesian, Melanesian or of a different region of Polynesia, whereby the locals will use terms which accommodate their own language. Many indigenous names exist for canoe, but the more universal used in outrigger canoe racing include: Wa’a – Hawaii, Va’a – Tahiti, Waka Ama – New Zealand. ( In all cases the “W” is pronounced “V”)
- English – Hawaiian – Maori
- Float – AMA – AMA
- Spar – IAKO – KIATO
- Hull – KA’LE – HIWI
- Spreader – WAE WA’A – TAUMANU
- Gunwale – MO’O – RAUWA
2.6 How are the spars (i`ako) attached to the canoe?
One of the many skills learnt by the early maritime pioneers of Oceania, was the skill of manufacturing cordage from plant fibres called sennet and with it the skill of lashing timbers together. This then became the method for attaching the spars (iako) to the canoe across strong thwarts.
Many different types of lashing styles and techniques were used, but the fundamental aim was to ensure the safety of the canoe itself so as the lashing would break before the canoe, which was a quality inherent to the sennet used. If the lashing did break, it would not unravel itself, achieved by intricate woven lashing techniques, whereby the cordage was cinched over itself many times. This remains the method used today.
2.7 Is rubber used for canoe lashing?
Yes and an excellent material it is – albeit, untraditional. Rubber inner tube usually from light truck tyres are used (around 2mm thickness). The natural flex and recoil of rubber inner tube is mechanically excellent for the purpose of allowing some degree of give at the point where the spar is attached to the canoe.
There are problems for long term use as rubber perishes quickly in strong sunlight and it can unravel quickly once broken due to its elasticity. For speed of rigging, rubber is excellent, but must be replaced frequently as it perishes quickly.
5.1 What are outrigger paddles made from?
Predominantly timber, but things are changing in this area. Solo outrigger canoeists are favouring extremely lightweight paddles as light as 9oz constructed from exotic material, generally carbon fibre and based on Olympic “C” Class designs.
However for six person canoeing, timber paddles are still favoured. Constructed from timber laminates a well made paddle is a work of art. The skill is in manufacturing a lightweight paddle that’s strong, durable and of course hydrodynamically efficient. New generation ‘hybrid’ paddles are now becoming in demand – a blend of wood and exotic materials.
Once again depending where you are, some rules will state that only timber paddles may be used. In Australia and Canada you can paddle with a paddle of any material.
5.2 What timbers for paddle construction?
This will vary upon availability, price and the manufacturers location. Their are definitely preferred timbers, favoured for there strength to weight ratio; as strong and as light as possible. These timbers include in ascending order of weight; Western Red Cedar, White Pine, White Cedar, Northern White Spruce, Sitka Spruce, Cypress, Douglas Fir and White Ash. The heavier, hard woods are preferred for blade tips and edging and as laminates for in particular, steerer’s paddles. Shafts are often made from laminated strips of Oak, Ash, Koa and Sitka Spruce. Other timbers include Purple Heart and Koa.
Purple Heart has a beautiful colour which when combined with a white timber, creates a beautiful affect. Koa, a native Hawaiian timber is heavy and strong and often used sparingly to give strength and stiffness to shafts and blades, though sometimes solid Koa shafts are constructed.
In island regions of Oceania, many common commercial timbers are unavailable and so local timbers are used and these can include in particular hau (Hawaii) or sea mangrove which grows in many parts of Oceania. Many paddles in Tahiti are constructed from such timber, having often a curious green tinge. The timber is lightweight and strong and was traditionally used for many applications including the making of fishing net floats and outrigger floats (ama).
5.3 Are super lightweight paddles the way to go?
The only time that super lightweight paddles can be hard to handle is in strong winds. Because they are so light they do not have any inherent inertia so that the paddler can end up wrestling with the blade trying to control it, whilst a heavier timber blade can be more controllable. Then again experienced users of lightweight synthetic paddles, tend to swear by them in any condition.
Exotic paddles are more expensive to repair, but generally very tough to begin with. Either way, light is best it seems but as with many other considerations in the sport of outrigger canoeing, the traditional element and the use of timber is an issue that is central to the sport. Timber has that certain feel you just can’t replace.
5.4 Are steering paddles different from regular paddles?
Yes. Steering paddles tend to have larger blade areas and may be straight shafted. The steerer’s paddle has to act much like a rudder and therefore needs to be constructed tougher to handle the sideways stresses that it experiences. In particular the shaft has to be strong. Steerers will often have a quiver of paddle sticks to cater for a variety of conditions, for rough and smooth water, sprints and distance races and some will actually change paddle types throughout a race, where a support boat is present, to cater for the change in ocean conditions.
5.5 How do paddlers paddles differ?
There are many varieties of paddle on the market and the major designs include: straight shaft, bent shaft and double bent shaft paddles. The bend being referred to, is a design principal first introduced to outrigger canoeing during the late 1970′s, but originated during the early seventies for “marathon” canoe racing, predominently in midwestern USA and Canada. The shaft is angled at the point at which it joins the blade, in an attempt to make the blade in the water more efficient throughout the length of the stroke, especially the later part. Olympic “C” class paddlers might well benefit from a bent shaft, but the rules apparently prohibit it.
The double bent shaft is not only angled at the blade but also further up the shaft so as the grip is angled closer to the top hand. The bend at the lower shaft, puts the wrist at a more comfortable angle reducing fatigue. Straight shaft paddles, are generally preferred by steerers.
5.6 How many degrees bend do bent shaft paddles have?
Varies accordingly, but between 5 and 14 degrees.
5.7 Should all paddlers in the canoe have the same paddle designs?
In terms of shaft to blade angle it appears the answer is yes (excluding the steerer). In terms of blade width, there is a theory which runs along the lines that the stroke can have a narrower blade width than the rest of the crew, as they pull the cleanest water and that blade widths can increase by 1cm per seat position as you move to the back of the canoe. In short though, widths and overall blade areas should be similar throughout, as radically wider blades will behave differently in the water than narrower and may affect the paddlers ability to mirror the stroke rate.
The length of the shaft according to paddlers height, will naturally also differ, but it is the shaft to blade angle and blade area which would appear to directly affect the potential to synchronise and mirror technique throughout the canoe. Paddle design in general is a complex topic, involving biodynamics and hydrodynamics and theories vary
7.1 Tell me more about solo outrigger canoes?
Solo outrigger canoes are not a new concept, having been present throughout all regions of Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia for well over a thousand years. Used as a means of personal transportation or for the lone fisherman, the solo outrigger canoe was an essential possession of many an islander.
First raced and popularised in Tahiti, the solo outrigger canoe was very much a flat water lagoon craft not designed for the rigours of the open ocean. Open decked and built to be extremely light and fast, serious modifications had to be made to the structural integrity of the canoe to make it suitable as an open ocean craft.
Walter Guild of The Fibreglass Shop Hawaii, along with Brent Bixler in 1986, took a Tahitian lagoon style canoe and made modifications to it; enclosing the deck area, added foot peddle steering, beefed up the rigging and ended up with a prototype. Following this, a purpose built canoe was designed and constructed, named the Kaiwi Challenger, which then took the sport from the calm of tropical lagoons to the might and force of the open ocean. Subsequently other designs have flourished and the interest in the sport has been nothing short of phenomenal.
7.2 Are they also referred to as one-man canoes?
Yes, though it must be said that this is a somewhat sexist term, so the term solo canoe or solo outrigger is perhaps more socially equitable as outrigger canoeing is anything but male dominated.
7.3 What length are solo outrigger canoes?
As with any embryonic sport, experimentation has been a major facet within this division since 1989. Canoes as short as 19ft have been experimented with and started out as long as 27ft.
Some designers try to create a compromise canoe or an all around canoe, which performs well not only in flat water but also in the rough. Unfortunately these criteria and design requirements are diametrically opposed to each other and therefore an all around canoe is neither outstanding in one condition or another, merely reasonably good in most.
The short canoes of 19-21ft thereabouts with extra rocker (hull curvature) perform well in ocean conditions, but not so on the flat. Whereas the longer canoes of between 21-23ft with a little less rocker, perform better on the flat and still perform adequately on the ocean. Ideally, you need two canoes, one for flat water races and one for rough water.
In areas such as Hawaii, solo canoes are generally constructed with rough water paddling in mind, as these make up the bulk of the race courses and as such they are specifically designed to perform best in these conditions.
7.4 What weight are most solo canoes?
Weight has definitely become the crucial factor in design and the principal criteria which paddlers are demanding from manufacturers. Unfortunately, weight is directly proportional to the amount of money you want to spend. The more you spend, the lighter the canoe can be by use of exotic materials.
Standard fibreglass constructed solo canoes in the 23ft range can be between 17-20kg with the shorter canoes going down to 17-15kg. With the use of exotics it’s possible to go as light as 12kg and maybe less. However longevity of the canoe and maintaining structural integrity and therefore safe usage of the canoe in a variety of conditions, remains a factor even when using exotic materials.
Lagoon styled canoes in Tahiti have reportedly been as light as 5kg, constructed from ply and kevlar, but are confined to flat water.
7.5 So what design specifications apply to solo canoes?
Interestingly, little attempt has been made to regulate design criteria for solo outrigger canoes. This is due in part to two factors:
1. That it is way to early to start putting regulations on design when the concept is so new
2. That most solo races are run independent of the major governing associations out of season and are therefore self regulated by enthusiasts and promoters.
However some major races do put a limit of some nature on design in order to ensure safety and so that those with less bucks to spend are not grossly disadvantaged and this is usually in regards to canoe weight only.
7.6 So there is no class racing as such?
None, as there aren’t enough of any one design and no one body to regulate them. Solo outrigger canoeing is very much a maverick, free spirited sport, not unlike surfing where rules are generally not applied to the nature of the canoe you use. Just as long as it is of a single outrigger design and paddled with a single blade, you’re in. The only acception is during the IVF World Sprint Championships, when all competitors must use the choosen canoe for the event.
7.7 Where are solo outrigger canoes actively raced?
Increasingly in all parts of the Pacific. The major participants are currently Hawaii and Tahiti, with strong growth now happening in New Zealand, Australia, Oregon, Canada and California.
7.8 What is the great appeal of solo outrigger canoes?
Fundamentally it provides the paddler with freedom to be their own boss much like any other solo paddle sport. Transportability via car roof rack and the ability to paddle when you want, where you want, gives you the chance to train at hours that suit you and an opportunity to improve your paddling technique.
The other important factor is the speed at which even a beginner can take to the craft and quickly find themselves paddling in an ocean environment, without the fear of entrapment that can occur with sit inside kayaks and without the inherent instability problems of a surf ski/kayak.
This is making it a very popular choice for individuals wanting to take up paddling on the ocean who live in an area where the sport is practised. As race venues expand and manufacturers vary the nature of solo outrigger canoes they manufacture, the sport is sure to continue growing at a rapid rate. It is currently estimated that the solo outrigger division is the fastest growing paddle sport in Hawaii, surpassing that of kayaking and surf skis.
7.9 Are there solo outrigger canoe sprint races?
Yes. They tend to be of shorter duration than that of six person canoe sprint races, being between 250 and 500m as turns are not included.
7.10 What are the major distance races for solo outriggers?
All countries where the sport is practised to any degree, have major distance races, including Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii and Tahiti. In terms of major international events only Hawaii and Tahiti have truly international events at present.
Tahiti stage the Super Aito (Budweiser Channel Va’a race) in August, which is staged between the island of Moorea and Tahiti, a distance of 36kms. The event is open to those who finish in the top 25 of a series of races held throughout Tahiti and neighbouring islands and then, by invitation, a select number of international paddlers.
In Hawaii the Kaiwi Challenge race, is a race from the island of Moloka’i to Oahu, over some 66kms (42 miles). This race however allows for change overs. Men are permitted 2 paddlers working on a rotation basis, using a support boat and women up to to 3. Held in May of each year.